What is a cast?

A cast holds a broken bone in place as it heals. Casts also help to prevent or decrease muscle contractions, and are effective at providing immobilization, especially after surgery.
Casts immobilize the joint above and the joint below the area that is to be kept straight and without motion. For example, a child with a forearm fracture will have a long arm cast to immobilize the wrist and elbow joints.

What are casts made of?

The outside, or hard part of the cast, is made from two different kinds of casting materials.

• Plaster (white in color)
  
• Fiberglass (comes in a variety of colors, patterns, and designs)
  

Cotton and other synthetic materials are used to line the inside of the cast to make it soft and to provide padding around bony areas, such as the wrist or elbow.
Special waterproof cast liners may be used under a fiberglass cast, allowing the child to get the cast wet. Consult your child's doctor for special cast care instructions for this type of cast.

What are the different types of casts?

Below is a description of the various types of casts, the location of the body they are applied, and their general function.

Type of cast	Location	Uses
Short arm cast	Applied below the elbow to the hand.	Forearm or wrist fractures. Also used to hold the forearm or wrist muscles and tendons in place after surgery.
Long arm cast	Applied from the upper arm to the hand.	Upper arm, elbow, or forearm fractures. Also used to hold the arm or elbow muscles and tendons in place after surgery.
Arm cylinder cast	Applied from the upper arm to the wrist.	To hold the elbow muscles and tendons in place after a dislocation or surgery.

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Type of cast	Location	Uses
Shoulder spica cast	Applied around the trunk of the body to the shoulder, arm, and hand.	Shoulder dislocations or after surgery on the shoulder area.
Minerva cast	Applied around the neck and trunk of the body.	After surgery on the neck or upper back area.
Short leg cast	Applied to the area below the knee to the foot.	Lower leg fractures, severe ankle sprains/strains, or fractures. Also used to hold the leg or foot muscles and tendons in place after surgery to allow healing.
Leg cylinder cast	Applied from the upper thigh to the ankle.	Knee, or lower leg fractures, knee dislocations, or after surgery on the leg or knee area.

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Type of cast	Location	Uses
Unilateral hip spica cast	Applied from the chest to the foot on one leg.	Thigh fractures. Also used to hold the hip or thigh muscles and tendons in place after surgery to allow healing.
One and one-half hip spica cast	Applied from the chest to the foot on one leg to the knee of the other leg. A bar is placed between both legs to keep the hips and legs immobilized.	Thigh fracture. Also used to hold the hip or thigh muscles and tendons in place after surgery to allow healing.
Bilateral long leg hip spica cast	Applied from the chest to the feet. A bar is placed between both legs to keep the hips and legs immobilized.	Pelvis, hip, or thigh fractures. Also used to hold the hip or thigh muscles and tendons in place after surgery to allow healing.

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Type of cast	Location	Uses
Short leg hip spica cast	Applied from the chest to the thighs or knees.	To hold the hip muscles and tendons in place after surgery to allow healing.

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Type of cast	Location	Uses
Abduction boot cast	Applied from the upper thighs to the feet. A bar is placed between both legs to keep the hips and legs immobilized.	To hold the hip muscles and tendons in place after surgery to allow healing.

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How can my child move around while in a cast?

Assistive devices for children with casts include:

• Crutches
  
• Walkers
  
• Wagons
  
• Wheelchairs
  
• Reclining wheelchairs
  

Cast care instructions

• Keep the cast clean and dry.
  
• Check for cracks or breaks in the cast.
  
• Rough edges can be padded to protect the skin from scratches.
  
• Do not scratch the skin under the cast by inserting objects inside the cast.
  
• Can use a hairdryer placed on a cool setting to blow air under the cast and cool down the hot, itchy skin. Never blow warm or hot air into the cast.
  
• Do not put powders or lotion inside the cast.
  
• Cover the cast while your child is eating to prevent food spills and crumbs from entering the cast.
  
• Prevent small toys or objects from being put inside the cast.
  
• Elevate the cast above the level of the heart to decrease swelling.
  
• Encourage your child to move his or her fingers or toes to promote circulation.
  
• Do not use the abduction bar on the cast to lift or carry the child.
  

Older children with body casts may need to use a bedpan or urinal in order to go to the bathroom. Tips to keep body casts clean and dry and prevent skin irritation around the genital area include the following:

• Use a diaper or sanitary napkin around the genital area to prevent leakage or splashing of urine.
  
• Place toilet paper inside the bedpan to prevent urine from splashing onto the cast or bed.
  
• Keep the genital area as clean and dry as possible to prevent skin irritation.
  

When to call your child's doctor

Contact your child's doctor or health care provider if your child develops one or more of the following symptoms:

• Fever greater than 101° F (38.3° C)
  
• Increased pain
  
• Increased swelling above or below the cast
  
• Complaints of numbness or tingling
  
• Drainage or foul odor from the cast
  
• Cool or cold fingers or toes
  

Changes in lumbar multifidus muscle function and nociceptive sensitivity in low back pain patient responders versus non-responders after dry needling treatment.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Little is known about the physiologic mechanism of dry needling. While some evidence suggests that dry needling may decrease nocioceptive sensitivity and facilitate muscle function, no studies to date have examined these physiologic changes compared to clinical outcomes.

OBJECTIVE:

To examine changes in lumbar multifidus (LM) muscle function and nociceptive sensitivity after dry needling in patients with LBP and to determine if such changes differ in patients that exhibit improved disability (responders) and those that do not (non-responders).

DESIGN:

Quasi-experimental study.

METHODS:

Sixty-six volunteers with mechanical LBP (38 men, age = 41.3 ± 9.2 years) completed the study. Ultrasound measurements and pain algometry of the LM were taken at baseline and repeated immediately following dry needling treatment to the LM muscles and after one week. The percent change in muscle thickness from rest to contraction was calculated for each time point to represent muscle function. Pressure pain threshold (PPT) was used to measure nociceptive sensitivity. Participants were dichotomized as responders and non-responders based on whether or not they experienced clinical improvement using the modified Oswestry Disability Index after one week. 2 × 3 mixed-model ANOVA were conducted for group (responders vs. non-responders) by time.

RESULTS:

Patient responders exhibited larger improvements in LM muscle contraction and nociceptive sensitivity 1 week, but not immediately, after dry needling than non-responders.

CONCLUSIONS:

Our results suggest that there may be lasting and clinically relevant sensorimotor changes that occur in LBP patients that improve with dry needling treatment that partially explain the physiologic mechanism of action.
Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Not much is known about the physiologic mechanism of dry needling. Although some evidence suggests that dry needling may decrease nocioceptive sensitivity and facilitate muscle function, no studies to date have examined these physiologic changes compared to clinical outcomes. The objective of this study was to examine changes in lumbar multifidus (LM) muscle function and nociceptive sensitivity after dry needling in patients with LBP and to determine if such changes vary in patients that exhibit improved disability (responders) and those that do not (non-responders). Patient responders showed greater improvements in LM muscle contraction and nociceptive sensitivity 1 week, but not immediately, after dry needling than non-responders.
These results indicate that there may be lasting and clinically relevant sensorimotor changes that occur in LBP patients that improve with dry needling treatment that partially account for the physiologic mechanism of action.
- See more at: http://www.physiospot.com/research/changes-in-lumbar-multifidus-muscle-function-and-nociceptive-sensitivity-in-low-back-pain-patient-responders-versus-non-responders-after-dry-needling-treatment/#sthash.pKUQYJeG.dpuf

Not much is known about the physiologic mechanism of dry needling. Although some evidence suggests that dry needling may decrease nocioceptive sensitivity and facilitate muscle function, no studies to date have examined these physiologic changes compared to clinical outcomes. The objective of this study was to examine changes in lumbar multifidus (LM) muscle function and nociceptive sensitivity after dry needling in patients with LBP and to determine if such changes vary in patients that exhibit improved disability (responders) and those that do not (non-responders). Patient responders showed greater improvements in LM muscle contraction and nociceptive sensitivity 1 week, but not immediately, after dry needling than non-responders.
These results indicate that there may be lasting and clinically relevant sensorimotor changes that occur in LBP patients that improve with dry needling treatment that partially account for the physiologic mechanism of action.
- See more at: http://www.physiospot.com/research/changes-in-lumbar-multifidus-muscle-function-and-nociceptive-sensitivity-in-low-back-pain-patient-responders-versus-non-responders-after-dry-needling-treatment/#sthash.pKUQYJeG.dpuf

Not much is known about the physiologic mechanism of dry needling. Although some evidence suggests that dry needling may decrease nocioceptive sensitivity and facilitate muscle function, no studies to date have examined these physiologic changes compared to clinical outcomes. The objective of this study was to examine changes in lumbar multifidus (LM) muscle function and nociceptive sensitivity after dry needling in patients with LBP and to determine if such changes vary in patients that exhibit improved disability (responders) and those that do not (non-responders). Patient responders showed greater improvements in LM muscle contraction and nociceptive sensitivity 1 week, but not immediately, after dry needling than non-responders.
These results indicate that there may be lasting and clinically relevant sensorimotor changes that occur in LBP patients that improve with dry needling treatment that partially account for the physiologic mechanism of action.
- See more at: http://www.physiospot.com/research/changes-in-lumbar-multifidus-muscle-function-and-nociceptive-sensitivity-in-low-back-pain-patient-responders-versus-non-responders-after-dry-needling-treatment/#sthash.pKUQYJeG.dpuf

Topical Pain Relief: Creams, Gels, and Rubs

When your joints are painful or your muscles ache, topical pain killers -- those you apply to your skin -- may offer relief. You'll find many products for topical pain relief at your local drugstore.
Here are some popular options and what you need to know if you'd like to give them a try.

Analgesic Creams, Rubs, and Sprays

Topical pain killers, or analgesics, are sprayed on or rubbed into the skin over painful muscles or joints. Although are all designed to relieve pain, different products use different ingredients. Here are the most common ingredients found in products available without a prescription.

• Counterirritants. Ingredients such as menthol, methylsalicylate, and camphor are called counterirritants because they create a burning or cooling sensation that distracts your mind from the pain.
• Salicylates. These same ingredients that give aspirin its pain-relieving quality are found in some creams. When absorbed into the skin, they may help with pain, particularly in joints close to the skin, such as the fingers, knees, and elbows.
• Capsaicin. The main ingredient of hot chili peppers, capsaicin is also one of the most effective ingredients for topical pain relief. When first applied, capsaicin creams cause a warm tingling or burning sensation. This gets better over time. You may need to apply these creams for a few days up to a couple of weeks before you notice relief from pain.

Not everyone will have good pain relief from these preparations, and capsaicin in particular may not help with osteoarthritis pain.
Here's what you need to know to get the greatest effects and minimize the risks of these products:

• Read the package insert and follow directions carefully. If there is an insert, save it to refer to later.
• Never apply them to wounds or damaged skin.
• Do not use them along with a heating pad, because it could cause burns.
• Do not use under a tight bandage.
• Wash your hands well after using them. Avoid touching your eyes with the product on your hands.
• If you are allergic to aspirin or are taking blood thinners, check with your doctor before using topical medications that contain salicylates

Soothe Your Aching Back

	Soothe Your Aching Back
	Arthritis can affect your back and lead to daily stiffness and pain. Take a look at steps to ease the discomfort, sleep better, and feel your best.

Geriatric Physical Therapy - Facts and Information

Common Pathologies

Conditions treated through geriatric physical therapy are osteoporosis, arthritis, Alzheimer disease, cancer, joint replacement, hip replacement, and more.

 History

Geriatric physical therapy was defined as a medical specialty in 1989 and covers a broad area of concerns regarding people as they continue the process of aging, although it commonly focuses on older adults. 
Among the conditions that may be treated through the use of geriatric physical therapy are osteoporosis, arthritis, alzheimer's disease, cancer, joint replacement, hip replacement, and more. The form of therapy is used in order to restore mobility, increase fitness levels, reduce pain, and to provide additional benefits.

Falling is one of the greatest risks older adults face, often leading to things such as hip fractures which then lead to a downward health spiral. In fact, falling is such an issue among older adults that the Center for Disease Control and Prevention has reported that one-third of all people over the age of sixty-five fall every year, making falls the leading cause of injury among people from this age group. Hundreds of thousands of older adults experience falls and resulting hip fractures every year, with resulting hospitalizations. Most of the people who experience a hip fracture stay in the hospital for a minimum of one week, with approximately twenty-percent dying within a year due to the injury. Unfortunately, a number of the remaining eighty-percent do not return to their previous level of functioning. Physical therapy can help older adults to remain both strong and independent, as well as productive.

Forms of Geriatric Physical Therapy

1. Exercise: Exercise is defined as any form of physical activity that is beyond what the person does while performing their daily tasks. Exercise is something that is designed to both maintain and improve a person’s coordination, muscle strength, flexibility and physical endurance, as well as their balance. It is meant to increase their mobility and lessen their chance of injury through falling. Exercise in relation to geriatric therapy might include activities such as stretching, walking, weight lifting, aquatic therapy, and specific exercises that are geared towards a particular injury or limitation. A physical therapist works with the person, teaching them to exercise on their own, so they may continue their exercise program at home
2. Manual Therapy: Manual therapy is applied with the goals of improving the person’s circulation and restoring mobility they may have lost due to an injury or lack of use. This form of therapy is also used to reduce pain. Manual therapy can include manipulation of the person’s joints and muscles, as well as massage.
3. Education: Education is important to the success and effectiveness of geriatric physical therapy. People are taught ways of performing daily tasks safely. Physical therapists also teach people how to use assistive devices, as well as how to protect themselves from further injury. Older adults can utilize physical therapy as a means for regaining their independence. Physical therapy can help seniors to feel better, as well as to enjoy a higher quality of life. 
4. Physical Therapists: Physical therapists provide people with a variety of services. They work with people individually, evaluating their physical capabilities and designing specific programs of exercise, education and wellness for them. Physical therapists also work with other health care providers to coordinate the person’s care.
5. Physical therapists must have completed their coursework in the biological, medical, psychological and physical sciences. They must have graduated from an accredited education program, and have completed a bachelors, masters, or doctoral degree with specialty clinical experience in physical therapy. Many physical therapists choose to seek additional expertise in clinical specialties, although every physical therapist must meet licensure requirements in their state.
6. The potential for age-related bodily changes to be misunderstood can lead to limitations of daily activities. The usual process of aging does not need to result in pain, or decreased physical mobility. A physical therapist can be a source of information for understanding changes in the body, they can offer assistance for regaining lost abilities, or for development of new ones. A physical therapist can work with older adults to help them understand the physiological and anatomical changes that occur with the aging process.
7. Physical therapists evaluate and develop specifically designed, therapeutic exercise programs. Physical therapy intervention can prevent life-long disability, restoring the person's level of functioning to its highest level. A physical therapist uses things such as treatments with modalities, exercises, educational information, and screening programs to accomplish a number of goals with the person they are working with, such as:
8. * Reduce pain
   * Improve sensation, joint proprioception
   * Increase overall fitness through exercise programs
   * Suggest assistive devices to promote independence
   * Recommend adaptations to make the person’s home accessible and safe
   * Prevent further decline in functional abilities through education, energy conservation techniques, joint protection
   * Increase, restore or maintain range of motion, physical strength, flexibility, coordination, balance and endurance
   * Teach positioning, transfers, and walking skills to promote maximum function and independence within the person’s capability

Making sense of Ventilator

When you care for a ventilated patient, work closely with the respiratory therapist, who is responsible for maintaining the equipment and is an expert in its use. With today's sophisticated machines, what seems like a simple change may actually require multiple adjustments to optimize the settings for a particular patient.When a patient is put on a ventilator, numerous settings, including respiratory rate, fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2), volume or pressure control, and ventilator mode, must be selected. In addition, two adjuncts—PEEP and pressure support—are sometimes used, depending on the patient's status and which ventilation mode is chosen. To properly care for your patient, it's important to understand each of these settings.Respiratory rate: This setting simply refers to the number of breaths per minute that the ventilator delivers. Eight to 12 bpm is a typical respiratory rate.3 Depending on the mode selected, the ventilator can provide all of the patient's ventilation, or the patient may be able to breathe spontaneously be tween ventilator breaths.

1. FiO2: This indicates the amount of oxygen the ventilator delivers, expressed as a percentage or a number between zero and one. FiO2 varies widely depending on the patient's condition; room air is 21% (0.21). While some patients might be adequately oxygenated with an FiO2 of less than 40% (0.40), someone with severe hypoxemia, for example, might need an initial FiO2 setting of 100% (1.00).2 Arterial blood gases and pulse oximetry values will help determine FiO2 settings.
2. Volume control: Traditionally, mechanical ventilation is volume controlled. This setting means the ventilator is programmed to deliver a preset volume of oxygen and air, called the tidal volume (VT), regardless of the amount of pressure required to deliver the volume (a positive pressure alarm protects patients from dangerously high pressures).
3. Pressure control: An alternative to volume control that's indicated for some patients, pressure control simply means that pressure is the endpoint rather than volume. Thus, inspiration ends when a preset pressure is reached, regardless of the volume delivered. The advantage of this mode is that it allows the volume to change in response to intrathoracic pressure. The goal is to increase mean airway pressure by prolonging inspiration, ideally recruiting more alveoli than volume control ventilation. By limiting pressure, there is less risk of pressure-related injury.
4. Pressure-regulated volume control (PRVC): This type of mechanical ventilation is an alternative to strict pressure control, representing an attempt to obtain the best of both volume and pressure control. PRVC adapts to changing compliance of the lungs to adjust inspiratory time and pressure to maintain a preset tidal volume.
5. Assist control (AC): In this mode, the ventilator supports every breath, whether it's initiated by the patient or the ventilator.3 AC is often used to allow the patient to rest, because the ventilator does all the work. This high level of respiratory support is frequently required in patients who have been resuscitated, have acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), or are paralyzed or sedated. Because AC mode results in the highest level of positive pressure in the chest, it increases the risk of barotrauma to the lungs. Anxious patients who frequently trigger the ventilator can easily hyperventilate.
6. Synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV): In this mode, not all spontaneous breaths are assisted, leaving the patient to draw some breaths on her own. For example, if your patient's ventilator is set on SIMV mode with a respiratory rate of 10 bpm, she will receive a breath roughly once every six seconds. She can also breathe on her own in between the machine-assisted breaths.

There are several advantages to this mode for patients who can tolerate it. SIMV helps preserve the strength of the respiratory musculature, decreases the risk of hyperventilation and barotrauma, and facilitates weaning. Weaning can be done by gradually decreasing the percentage of machine-assist ventilation.Patients who need short-term ventilation benefit most from SIMV, but the choice of mode should be an individual decision based on the patient's condition and tolerance.3 No one method is best for all patients.2Positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP): PEEP can be used to increase oxygenation in either AC or SIMV mode. The effect of PEEP on the lungs is similar to blowing up a balloon and not letting it completely deflate before blowing it up again. Most patients are started on 5 cm H2O of PEEP.3 Some patients, such as those with ARDS or other conditions that make lungs stiff, require higher levels of PEEP to keep alveoli from collapsing and to decrease intrapulmonary shunting. It's not unusual to use 8 - 12 cm H2O in these patients. But PEEP should not exceed 20 cm H2O; higher settings increase the risk of severe lung damage, subcutaneous emphysema, and pneumothorax.Pressure support: Used alone or added to SIMV, this provides a small amount of pressure during inspiration to help the patient draw in a spontaneous breath. Pressure support makes it easier for the patient to overcome the resistance of the ET tube and is often used during weaning because it reduces the work of breathing. It's not necessary during AC ventilation because in that setting, the ventilator supports all of the breaths.Responding to an alarmSince a ventilator is, in effect, merely an air pump, an alarm simply signals that there's something wrong with the pressure, volume, or rate of air being delivered. When an alarm sounds, your role is to immediately check the patient and the equipment and figure out—and fix—what's interfering with the function of the ventilator. If you can't immediately identify the problem, disconnect the patient from the ventilator, use a manual resuscitation bag, and call for help. Often, the problem is related to the tubing.A high-pressure alarm is the one you're most likely to hear. At worst, this alarm indicates that your patient's airway is blocked and she's no longer being ventilated or that she has a tension pneumothorax. While it's far more likely that coughing triggered the alarm, you can never assume that a high-pressure alarm went off because your patient coughed—always assess the airway! If a cough triggers the alarm, the ventilator will reset itself after a few short breaths.A simple way to determine airway patency is to disconnect the ventilator and ventilate your patient with a manual resuscitation bag. If the airway is obstructed, you'll feel it immediately and take steps to clear it by suctioning or re-intubating the patient.The low-pressure alarm and low exhaled tidal volume alarms are common, as well. These alarms indicate that either the ventilator did not reach the pressure it expected or that some of the air it delivered was not exhaled back into the tubing for measurement. Your response should be to look for disconnected tubing or an air leak. The most common places for leaks are around the ET tube cuff, poorly secured connections, and drainage and access ports on the tubing.A high respiratory rate alarm can signal a change in your patient's condition, such as heightened anxiety, awakening from sedation, or pain. More commonly, though, water or kinks in the tubing trigger this alarm because air is pulsing through the tubing around the obstruction. Your response: Check the tubing and eliminate any water or kinks—and assess the status of your patient.Finally, an apnea alarm may sound, possibly signaling that your patient has stopped breathing. Disconnected tubing, however, is a more likely cause of an apnea alarm. The most common place for the tubing to become disconnected is where it attaches to the ET or tracheostomy tube. Again, check the tubing and reconnect it, if necessary.Vigilance wards off complicationsInfection, atelectasis, barotrauma, and oxygen toxicity are all potential complications of mechanical ventilation. Good pulmonary hygiene as well as careful attention to the ventilator settings are the key to avoiding them.Infection is a potential problem because intubation bypasses the primary mechanisms that prevent bacteria from getting into the lungs. Normally, the oral pharynx washes away bacteria with saliva, and normal flora compete with bacteria in the mouth. But a patient who's mechanically ventilated doesn't eat and may be on systemic antibiotics that suppress the flora; the absence of flora—and decreased salivary flow—predisposes her to infection. Bacteria around the ET tube cuff that get aspirated when the tubing is moved or the patient coughs can lead to pneumonia.To lower the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia, the Institute for Healthcare Improvement recommends implementing the ventilator bundle, a series of interventions related to ventilator care that, when implemented together, achieve better outcomes than when implemented individually. 

The four components of the ventilator bundle are: elevation of the head of the bed to 30 - 45 degrees; daily "sedation vacations" and assessment of readiness to extubate; peptic ulcer disease prophylaxis; and deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis.

 Good mouth care and cleaning of Yankauer suction devices can also decrease the incidence of infections.

Atelectasis, which is collapse of the alveoli, is a risk of positive pressure ventilation because air pushed in under positive pressure is not evenly distributed throughout the lungs. Good pulmonary hygiene and regular repositioning can help prevent atelectasis, along with the administration of PEEP to those who need it. Assess your patient's breath sounds at least once every four hours, and suction secretions as necessary.Barotrauma (lung damage caused by high airway pressure) and volutrauma (damage caused by too much volume in the lungs) are closely related. Typically, lung damage is caused by a combination of both. It is important to monitor your patient for subcutaneous emphysema, which is an early warning sign of extrapulmonary air, and decreased breath or heart sounds, which could indicate pneumothorax or pneumomediastinum.Oxygen toxicity is another potential complication, a possible result of maintaining a high FiO2 for too long. At high concentrations, oxygen is converted into oxygen-free radicals that can cause lung damage. Although the symptoms of oxygen toxicity may be difficult to recognize in a patient on a ventilator, they include fatigue, lethargy, weakness, restlessness, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, coughing, and dyspnea, followed by refractory hypoxemia and cyanosis.1 To avoid this complication, administer the lowest FiO2 that produces an oxygen saturation greater than 90% and a PaO2 greater than 60 mm Hg.3 But never compromise a patient's oxygenation out of fear of oxygen toxicity.Finally, remember that for many patients, the point of mechanical ventilation is to get the patient "over the hump" of acute illness, after which ventilatory support should be rapidly withdrawn. Consider, for instance, the way that Ms. Warner's treatment progressed:After being intubated, she received mechanical ventilation in AC mode with light sedation and was started on antibiotic therapy for her respiratory infection. After 36 hours, she was switched to SIMV mode and then weaned off the ventilator. She went on to recover fully, with ongoing care for her COPD provided by her personal physician.As was true for Ms. Warner, mechanical ventilation can save your patient's life. Knowing how to prevent complications and troubleshoot, as needed, will help you ensure your patient's safety until ventilatory support can be successfully